Tài liệu DRAFT VERSION 5.2 AMBINET AIR POLLUTION: CARBON MONOXIDE POSITION PAPER doc

LINK DOWNLOAD MIỄN PHÍ TÀI LIỆU "Tài liệu DRAFT VERSION 5.2 AMBINET AIR POLLUTION: CARBON MONOXIDE POSITION PAPER doc": http://123doc.vn/document/1041417-tai-lieu-draft-version-5-2-ambinet-air-pollution-carbon-monoxide-position-paper-doc.htm

CO position paper - draft version 5.2
5

Table I 0LQLPXPQXPEHURIVWDWLRQVSHU]RQHLQFDVHRIQRVXSSOHPHQWDU\DVVHVVPHQW
3RSXODWLRQRI
DJJORPHUDWLRQRU
]RQHPLOOLRQV
,IPD[LPXPFRQFHQWUDWLRQV
H[FHHG8$7
,IPD[LPXPFRQFHQWUDWLRQVDUH
EHWZHHQ8$7DQG/$7
<0.25
-0.5
-0.75
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.75
3.75
-4.75
-6
>6
1
2
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
If >1, to include at least one
urban background station and one
traffic oriented station



For the assessment of pollution in the vicinity of point sources, the number of sampling
stations should be calculated taking into account emission densities, the likely distribution
patterns of ambient air pollution and potential exposure of the population.


Micro-siting criteria include the requirement for street stations to measure less than 5 metres
from the kerbside, but at least 4 metres from the centre of the nearest traffic lane and at least
25 metres from the edge of major street junctions.


For measuring CO the following reference method is proposed: analysis and calibration
according to ISO/DIS 4224: non-dispersive infrared spectrometer (NDIR) method.


Assessment by mathematical methods (modelling, interpolation, combinations of models and
measurements) are important tools to generate a territory-covering description of the CO
concentrations, in particular spatial statistics.


&RVWLPSOLFDWLRQV


A separate study was conducted to identify and estimate costs and benefits of further action
beyond existing and planned measures needed to meet the limit values for CO. Two possible
limit values were investigated: 10 mg/m
3
as the highest 8-hour mean (proposed) and 10
mg/m
3
as the second highest mean in any year. These levels were investigated in both urban
background and hot-spot locations (the latter including kerb side sites). For 2005 no
exceedences were expected for the urban background. Exceedences were estimated to occur at
hot spots, though in some cities only. The benefit assessment was limited to one type of effect
only, congestive heart failure. The benefits to be gained by reducing emissions to meet the
limit values were less than estimated costs, though of a similar order of magnitude.


These results are subject to a high level of uncertainty. Important contributions to the
uncertainty arise from inconsistencies in inventories between different countries, a lack of
good exposure-response relations and the limited scope of the study which did not allow the
CO position paper - draft version 5.2
6
integration of secondary effects of abatement of CO, for example through emission reductions
of other pollutants.


5HSRUWLQJWKHUHVXOWV


It is proposed that not only data of individual measuring stations should be reported, but, in
the case of supplementary assessment, also spatial statistics, in particular the total street-
length in exceedence per zone.
CO position paper - draft version 5.2
7

&RQWHQWV
,1752'8&7,21 
%DFNJURXQG 
&2LQWKHDLU 
6RXUFHVRI&2 
1.3.1 World-wide emissions 10
1.3.2 EU emissions 11
&2LQDPELHQWDLU 
1.4.1 Data at EU level 14
1.4.2 Data at national level 16
1.4.3 Summary of CO levels 18

5,6.$66(660(17 
(IIHFWVDQGULVNV 
2.1.1 Health 20
2.1.2 Environment 21
:+2JXLGHOLQHVIRUPD[LPXPFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRI&2LQDPELHQWDLU 
:+2JXLGHOLQHVYHUVXV&2FRQFHQWUDWLRQV 
([LVWLQJVWDQGDUGV 
2.4.1 Existing EU standards 23
2.4.2 Standards in Member States 23
2.4.3 Standards in some other countries 24
7KUHVKROGVWREHFRQVLGHUHGDVVWDUWLQJYDOXHVIRU(8VWDQGDUGV 
2.5.1 Comparison of the protectiveness of the four WHO guideline values 24
2.5.2 Choosing the limit value 28
2.5.3 Further specifications of the limit value 29
2.5.4 Public information on ambient concentrations 30
2.5.5 Alert threshold 30

$66(660(172)&21&(175$7,216 
,QWURGXFWLRQ 
3ULQFLSOHVDQGDVVHVVPHQWUHJLPHVEDVHGRQWKH'LUHFWLYHRQ$PELHQW$LU4XDOLW\$VVHVVPHQWDQG
0DQDJHPHQW 
3.2.1 Purpose of the assessment 31
3.2.2 Targets addressed 31
3.2.3 Assessment regimes 31
3.2.4 Assessment in time and space 33
3.2.5 Upper and Lower Assessment Thresholds 34
0HDVXUHPHQWVWUDWHJ\ 
3.3.1 General 36
3.3.2 Network density in the case of no supplementary assessment 37
3.3.3 Network density in the case of supplementary assessment 38
3.3.4 Siting criteria 38
CO position paper - draft version 5.2
8
0HDVXUHPHQWPHWKRGV 
3.4.1 Existing sampling methods 41
3.4.2 Existing measuring methods 41
3.4.3 Existing calibration procedures 42
3.4.4 Reference measurement method 43
3.4.5 Screening techniques 43
0DWKHPDWLFDOPHWKRGV 
'DWDTXDOLW\REMHFWLYHV 
4XDOLW\$VVXUDQFHDQG4XDOLW\&RQWURORIPHDVXUHPHQWV 

&267,03/,&$7,216 
5(3257,1*7+(5(68/76 
$11(;$63(&,$/$5($62)327(17,$//<+,*+&2&21&(175$7,216 

CO position paper - draft version 5.2
9
&2326,7,213$3(5
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
The Council Directive on the Assessment and Management of Ambient Air Quality
2
, the so-
called Framework Directive, gives a list of atmospheric pollutants for which the European
Commission shall submit to the Council proposals for the setting of limit values and, as
appropriate, alert thresholds in relation to the air quality. The pollutants are listed in Annex I
to the Directive. In 1995 the Commission and Member States established the Air Quality
Steering Group, in which the Commission, the Member States and representatives of Industry
and Non-Governmental Organisations participated. It started to work on the first five
pollutants sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, fine particulate matter, suspended particulate
matter and lead. Under the responsibility of the Steering Group position papers were drawn up
for each pollutant. The two types of particulate pollutants were dealt with in one position
paper on particulate matter, and so four position papers were written, which were
subsequently used by the Commission to draw up a proposal for a combined new Directive on
these pollutants (COM (97) 500).


In the course of the work on the first Daughter Directive, the preparation of position papers
for the second group of pollutants ozone, benzene and carbon monoxide, commenced. The
position paper for carbon monoxide (CO) was prepared by a consultant to the Commission on
the basis of information and comments given by the Steering Group. A group of experts on
CO assigned by the Steering Group convened twice for detailed discussions. In addition an
economic analysis was conducted.


The current position paper on carbon monoxide only deals with the direct harmful effects of
CO in ambient air, in accordance with the Framework Directive. CO is not only a harmful air
pollutant in itself, but also a precursor for other pollutants. In particular it is a precursor for
continental and global scale ozone and carbon dioxide, which are important greenhouse gases.
Ozone also has substantial direct effects on health, vegetation and materials. Pollutants
affected by CO will be addressed elsewhere.
1.2 CO in the air


CO is one of the most common air pollutants. It has no colour, odour or taste, it has a low
reactivity and a low water solubility. It is mainly emitted into the atmosphere as a product of
incomplete combustion. Annually, a large number of individuals die as a result of exposure to
very high indoor CO levels, far above ambient outdoor levels. In Flanders, for example, in
1987-1988 about 100 people died, mostly as a result of accidental exposure
3
. For ambient
outdoor air, CO is one of the “classical” air pollutants, for which many countries have set air
quality limit values. At the EU level no air quality threshold exist currently.


In terms of absolute concentrations CO is the most prevalent of the toxic air pollutants. Its
concentrations are expressed in mg/m
3
, in contrast to all other pollutants, which are measured
in µg/m
3
or even smaller units.


2
Council Directive 96/62/EC O.J L 296 21.11.96 p55

3
Life in the big city (in Dutch). G. Magnus, 1995, Gemeenschappelijke Gezondheid, Antwerp.
CO position paper - draft version 5.2
10

Fortunately the risk thresholds are also in the range of mg/m
3
, which is higher than thresholds
for other toxic air pollutants of concern.










CO is not only directly emitted into the air, but can also be formed by chemical reactions from
organic air pollutants, such as methane. CO has a residence time in the atmosphere of about
three months. At moderate latitudes the time for air to travel around the world is also of the
order of months. Since CO formation from organic air pollutants takes place everywhere in
the atmosphere, a global background level of CO exists, ranging between 0.05 and 0.15 ppmv
(0.06 and 0.17 mg/m
3
)
4
. At EU latitudes the global background level is at the high end of this
range.



1.3 Sources of CO


1.3.1 World-wide emissions


CO is brought into the atmosphere by two different mechanisms: emission of CO and
chemical formation from other pollutants. Table 1 gives an overview of the global
anthropogenic emissions of CO
5
. From the table it appears that burning of forest, savannah
and agricultural waste accounts for half the global CO emissions. The chemical formation of
CO is due to the oxidation of hydrocarbons, and it adds 600 - 1600 Mtonnes to the
atmosphere
6
. Two-third of it stems from methane. It is a slow process, and does not give rise
to local peak concentrations. However, being a source of the same magnitude of the direct
emission, CO formation contributes considerably to the global background level. It is
estimated that about one-third of CO results from natural sources, including that derived from
hydrocarbon oxidation.


Table 1 Global anthropogenic emissions of CO by sector in 1990

6HFWRU (PLVVLRQ
0WRQQHV\HDU 
Road transport 206.7 21%
Non-road transport 1.7 0.2%
Residential 218.9 22%


4
Climate Change 1994, Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and An Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission
Scenarios, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1995, University Press, Cambridge.

5
Description of EDGAR Version 2.0, J.G.J. Olivier et al., 1996, RIVM report nr. 771060002, TNO MEP report
nr. R96/119, The Netherlands.

6
Climate change 1994, Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and An Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission
Scenarios, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1995, University Press, Cambridge.
&RQYHUVLRQ.DQG
N3D
SSP PJP
PJP  SSP
CO position paper - draft version 5.2
11

Industry and power generation 51.2 5%
Deforestation 111.4 11%
Savannah burning 177.0 18%
Agricultural waste burning 207.6 21%
7RWDO  



1.3.2 EU emissions


Data on CO emissions in the EU are available in the CORINAIR emissions inventory for
1990
7
and 1994
8
. Table 2 and Figure 1 summarise the emissions by source sector for the EU
member states. By far the largest source is road transport, which accounts for two-thirds of the
emissions of the EU. The contribution from traffic is seen to vary considerably between the
Member States (from 30 to 89%). Also for other source sectors the relative contributions
deviate from the EU pattern, HJ there is no emission from production processes in the UK.
Such deviations may reflect the real emission deviations, but it can not be excluded that
differences in emission registration method cause part of the discrepancies.


Not all sectors in Table 1 and Table 2 can be directly compared, but EU emissions by road
transport, combustion and production processes are, on a per capita basis, larger than global
emissions by road transport, industry and power generation. Conversely, residential
emissions, deforestation, savannah burning and agricultural waste burning are more important
sources on the global scale. Again, some of the differences may be due to differences in
estimation methods.


Figure 2 compares the 1994 emissions with those of 1990. The trend in emissions is
downward, though not in all Member States. The emissions in the most important source
category, road transport, have gone down as a result of emission reduction measures, such as
Inspection and Maintenance and the introduction of the 3-way catalyst, although the effect
was partly offset by the growth of the number of vehicle-kilometres.





7
CORINAIR 90, Comprehensive Summary Report. Final Draft. March 1996. European Topic Centre on Air
Emissions / EEA.

8
CORINAIR 94, Summary Report. Final Draft. 10 April 1997. European Topic Centre on Air Emissions / EEA.
CO position paper - draft version 5.2
12

(8HP L VVL RQVE\VHFWRU
Combustion
20%
Production
processes
6%
Road transport
63%
Other
1%
Waste
5%
Other mobile
5%

Figure 1 EU emission of CO by sector in 1994


Table 2 Emissions of CO in the EU in 1994 (1000 tonnes)
9

Austria 506 293 363 12 4 2 1181
Belgium 132 17 995 2 19 0 1166
Denmark 187 0 413 79 0 37 715
Finland 87 0 311 40 0 0 438
France 2455 623 5236 1013 233 107 9668
Germany 1992 606 3953 243 0 13 6807
Greece 19 25 978 38 0 135 1194
Ireland 65 0 261 6 1 0 333
Italy 704 481 5811 678 1527 30 9231
Luxembourg 85 14 44 3 0 0 145
Netherlands 233 112 523 27 3 37 935
Portugal 433 15 733 14 0 0 1195
Spain 1280 233 2739 113 315 133 4813
Sweden 30 5 1164 110 4 2 1315
United Kingdom 427 0 4315 41 48 47 4879
EU 8636 2423 27839 2418 2156 543 44015

      




9
CORINAIR emission data for 1995 were available at the time of writing, but since emission data were lacking
for some countries the set of 1994 was preferred. Official emission data reported under the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change did not contain road transport as a separate sector.
CO position paper - draft version 5.2
13

(PL VVLRQVLQDVSHUFHQWDJHRIHPL VVLRQV
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Luxembou
rg
Netherland
s
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United
Kingdom
EU

Figure 2 Emissions in 1994 as percentage of 1990 emissions



EMEP reports emissions data for a longer time span. The first year for which emissions per
country were given is 1980, but emissions were in many cases estimated by setting the
emission equal to the value of the first official submission in a later year. Table 3 gives the
EMEP emissions
10
; in order to bring out any trends it gives data only for years for which
emissions have actually been officially submitted to EMEP. Due to differences in definitions
and calculation methods, including revisions of old data of past years that were applied to
only one of the data bases, there are differences between the EMEP data and the CORINAIR
data, but also here a slightly downward trend in the last years can be noticed. The EMEP data
are not complete enough to allow a calculation of the trend in CO emissions of the EU as a
whole.


Table 3 Trend in CO emissions as given by EMEP (1000 tonnes)
11
      
Austria
1636 1648 1573 1503 1414 1326 1408
Belgium
1124 1131 1177 1147
Denmark
673 741 770 824 812 732 728
Finland
556
France
9216 8399 10930 10626 10309 9801
Germany
15064 12049 10280 9032 8640 8029 7428
Greece

Ireland
429 428 403 416
Italy
6919 10347
Luxembourg
240 171
Netherlands
1356 1059 959 941 917 897
Portugal
1086 1111 1156 1175 1211
Spain
4778 4866 4801 4813
Sweden
1347 1312 1275 1236
United Kingdom
5631 5895 6360 6287 5842 5312 4884



10
Transboundary Air Pollution in Europe. MSC-W Status Report 1996. Part One; Estimated dispersion of
acidifying agents and of near surface ozone. EMP/ MSC-W, Report 1/96, July 1996.

11
See footnote 9.
CO position paper - draft version 5.2
14

Figure 3 illustrates the impact of EU legislation on passenger car emission standards. The last
two directives strongly reduce CO emissions. Since many older cars, which do not comply
with these standards, are still in operation, a further reduction of traffic emissions is expected
in the coming years. The speed of this fleet turnover varies considerably between the Member
States. The reductions of emissions per vehicle is expected to be strong enough not to be
offset by the growth of traffic.












% CO
% HC & NOx






3HUFHQWDJH(PLVVLRQV
5HGXFWLRQ
(YROXWLRQRI&RPPXQLW\3DVVHQJHU&DU
(PLVVLRQ6WDQGDUGV
&2
+&12[
((&
((&
((&
((&
(&
((&
((&

Figure 3 The impact of EU legislation on passenger car emission standards


1.4 CO in ambient air


CO has been measured for many years. Monitoring strategies have focused very much on
pollution near roads. CO levels in busy city streets are higher than CO near highways, since
the amount of CO emitted per kilometre strongly decreases with vehicle speed and also
because the ventilation in city streets is less. Ambient CO levels are usually highest in winter,
because cold engines emit much more CO than hot engines and also because the atmosphere
tends to be more stable than in summer.
1.4.1 Data at EU level


'DWDIURPPHDVXUHPHQWV


$3,6